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Vol. Ill, No. 1 



September, 1917 



University of Virginia Record 
Extension .Series 

( ' ) ( 




A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 



Published by the University 



[Entered as Second-Class Malter at the Postoffice at Charlottesville, Va.] 



^T^ograpt^ 



BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF EXTENSION OF THE 

UNIVERSITY INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING 

PUBLICATIONS. 



1. Rural Life Bulletin — The Country Church 

2. Virginia High School Quarterly — Published in November, February, May and 

August 

3. Virginia High School Literary and Athletic League — Debate — Part L Organiza- 

tion, Parliamentary Forms and Rules. Part IL Arguments and References 

4. Virginia High School Literary and Athletic League — Debate — Woman's Suffrage 

5. Virginia High School Literary and Athletic League — Debate — Good Roads 

6. Extension Series, Vol. I, No. 2 — University Extension Lectures 

7. Extension Series, Vol. I, No. 3 — Compulsory Education • 

8. Extension Series, Vol. 1, No. 4 — Religious Activities and Advantages at the Uni- 

versity of Virginia 

9. Extension Series, Vol. 1, No. 5 — Program for the use of Sunday Schools and 

Churches in the observance of Country Church Day 

10. Extension Series, Vol. I, No. 5 — Announcement of the Curry Memorial School 

of Education 

11. Extension Scries, Vol. J, No. 7 — Program of the Ninth Annual Rural Life Con- 

ference, University of Virginia Summer School, July 17 to 21, 1916 

12. Extension Series, \'ol. 11, No. 1 — Official Syllabus of Bible Study for High 

School Pupils 

13. Extension Series, Vol. H, No. 2 — The Virginia High School and Athletic League 

14. Extension Series, \'ol. 11, No. 3 — A Bibliography of Educational Surveys and 

Tests 

15. Extension Series, \'ol. IL No. 4 — Principles Involved in the Teaching of Hand- 

writing 

16. Extension Series, Vol. II, No. 5 — -Summer School of Music; Special Announcement. 

17. Extension Series, \'ol. II, No. 6-7 — Thu Jewish Chautauqua Society of the Uni- 

versity of Virginia 

18. Extension Series, Vol. II, No. 8-9 — The Relation uf the Colleges and Univer- 

sities of the South to the National Crisis 

19. Extension Series, Vol. II, No. 10 — Albemarle Highway Association 

Copies of these bulletins will be sent to any one upon application to 

BUREAU OF EXTENSION, 

Charles G. Maphis, Chairman 

University, Virginia 



0. of D. 

WAIl 16 IS 28 



t^.3>c 



A Study of School Recesses 



W. H. Heck, 
Professor of Education, University of Virginia. 



This study is based upon notes taken from October, 1915, to De- 
cember, 1916, during conversations with ten superintendents, 42 prin- 
cipals, and two representative teachers of 41 city, town, or rural 
schools or school systems in nearly every section of Virginia. Listed 
as one each in this group of 41 are three counties, eleven cities, and 
■27 smaller communities, including over 180 elementary and 53 high 
schools and over 51,000 elementary and 8,000 high-school students. 
The schools as a whole are probably typical of average conditions 
in man}'^ states. Minor variations within one system were not noted, 
and only the general tendencies are here emphasized; individual 
schools are not named. The data could not be consistently grouped 
according to size or type of school. No form of questionnaire was 
used, because the actual conditions could be interpreted better 
through informal discussion. 

Recesses are one of the most neglected phases of school manage- 
ment and nave received little attention in educational literature, a 
page of discussion being an unusual amount specifically for this sub- 
ject. The literature on play tells of some games for these periods 
"but does not deal with the recess problem as a whole. It is earn- 
estly hoped that more interest will soon be shown in recesses, which 
occupy about one-sixth of the school day and influence the organi- 
zation and success of the remainder. This large proportion of the 
child's school life must be used to the greatest possible advantage 
and made to serve indispensably in furthering the aims of education. 

Although the main points in this study are the uses of the recess, 
the initial points are (a) the amount and (b) the distribution of 
recess time in relation to the total school time. What is the length 

*This study is the sixth in a series on the School-Child's Day. 
The first three studies were on Mental Fatigue in Relation to the 
Daily School Program, the fourth and fifth were on Home Study, 
and the seventh will be on a Comparison between Home Work and 
School Work. The first study was published in book form, the sec- 
ond and third, appeared in the Psychological Clinic, the fourth and 
fifth in the School Review, and the sixth in the American School Board 
Journal, from which the present bulletin is reprinted. The author's 
International Source-Book on Home Study, containing over 200 se- 
lections and 600 references, will be completed next Spring. 

[3] 



4 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

of the school day in each grade and how does it vary from grade to 
grade? How much recess time is given in each grade and what is 
its proportion to the total school day? Does it vary as the school 
time varies? How is it distributed in each grade through the day? 
To what extent do the amount and distribution of the recess time 
influence each other? 

The length of the school day for the different grades has mainly 
been decided by tradition and is changed almost as slowly as relig- 
ious dogma. But either scientific justification for, or modification of, 
present schedules is an extremely difficult question, due to the many 
contributory problems of school hygiene, personal hygiene, curricu- 
lum, methods, fatigue, boredom, home and social conditions. Most 
administrators change the school day only under pressure from out- 
side or inside the system; and those using this pressure, on account 
of some interest not accommodated by the existing schedule, seldom 
realize the related problems involved. The present report does not 
deal directly with this question, which will be studied in detail later 
on, but only indirectly as affecting recesses. 

Schedules in Virginia Schools. 

The following Virginia school law allows the necessary local va- 
riation in matters of schedule, and the few specific requirements are 
often not closely followed in practice:* 

"Length of daily session. — The time of opening and closing school shall 
be prescribed by the district board of school trustees, subject to the 
approval of the division superintendent: provided, that where an in- 
termission of thirty minutes or more is given no school shall open 
later than 9 o'clock a. m., nor shall any school be taught less than 
five hours each school day, including the necessary time for appro- 
priate opening exercises. The time of opening and closing schools, 
with the intermission to be given, must be specified in contracts with 
teachers." 

The State form of contract with teachers does not limit the local 
trustees further in this matter: 

"It is also agreed that the said party of the second part shall open 

school at in the morning, give minutes at o'clock, 

minutes at o'clock, and minutes at o'clock, and 

close the school at o'clock in the afternoon (a school day shall 

consist of hours and minutes, and a school month of four 

weeks of five school days each)." 

We now come to a summary of actual conditions in the state, as 
represented by the data collected for the present study. 

The schedules for first and second grades are too varied to be 

*For regulation of the school day by other States, see Hood's Di- 
gest of State Laws Relating to Public Education, pp. 441, 510-15. 



A STUDY OF SCHOOL RE;CE;SSeS 5 

combined in single averages. The seventeen first grades with ses- 
sions not alternating with those of other classes average 291 minutes 
of school and 41 minutes of recess, netting 250 minutes for school 
work; the eighteen first grades with morning sessions average 181, 
13, and 168 minutes respectively; the nineteen first grades with after- 
noon sessions average 137, 7 and 130 minutes respectively. The 22 
second grades with sessions not alternating with those of other 
classes average 340 minutes of school- and 59 minutes of recess, 
netting 281 minutes for school work; the fifteen second grades with 
morning sessions average 188, 12, and 176 minutes respectively; the 
eleven second grades with afternoon sessions average 147, 8, and 139 
minutes respectively. 

Noticeable is the great difiference between these three groups in 
the same grade, as compared with corresponding groups in the two 
grades. Furthermore, the recess time is 14, 7, and 5 per cent, re- 
spectively, of the total school time in the first-grade groups, and 
17, 6, and 5 per cent in the second-grade groups. For each min- 
ute of recess in the former groups there are 6.1, 12.9, and 18.6 min- 
utes, respectively, of school work, and in latter groups 4.8, 14.7, 
and 17.4 minutes. The average deviations in the first-grade groups 
are 67, 12, and 18 minutes, respectively, from the group averages of 
total school time, and 19, 3, and. 6 minutes from the group averages 
of r&cess time; and the corresponding deviations in the second-grade 
groups are 40, 16, and 25 for school, and 19, 3, and 8 for recess. The 
range of variation in the former groups is 180-420, 150-220, and 105-180 
minutes, respectively, for school, and 10-70, 10-20, and 10-30 minutes 
for recess; and the corresponding range in the latter groups is 245-420, 
150-220, and 105-180 for school, and 10-85, 10-20, and 0-45 for recess. 

These figures reveal an extreme lack of uniformity in the total 
school and the recess time in both the first and second grades, while 
the following figures reveal an extreme uniformity from the third 
grade through the high school. There is evidently needed some 
golden mean of similarity in similar grades and progressive differ- 
ence from grade to grade, especially in the first five grades. 

The 34 third grades with full sessions average 357 minutes of school 
and 63 minutes of recess, thus netting 295 minutes for school work; 
the 37 fourth grades average 362, 63, and 299 minutes, respectively; 
the 39 fifth grades average 372, 63, and 309 minutes; the 39 sixth and 
39 seventh grades (also eighth in two systems) average 371, 62, and 
309 minutes; the 37 high schools (8-11) average 371, 62, and 309 
minutes. 

Bach of the grades 3-11 approximates six hours of school, one hour 
of recess, and five hows of school zvork. In each, the recess is about 
seventeen per cent {16.7-17.4) of the total school time; and for each min- 
ute of recess there are about 4.8 minutes (4.76-4.90) of school zvork. 
The average deviations of the five groups from their group averages 



6 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

of school time are 30, 25, 21, 22, and 23 minutes, respectively, and 
from their group averages of recess time 15, 14, 16, and i:> minutes. 
In each group the longest school day is 420 and the longest recess 
80 minutes; the shortest school day ranges from 220 to ;)20 and the 
shortest recess from ten to thirty minutes. 

The general similarity in these schedules is partly explained by 
the uniformity in the same school or system for grades 3-11, but only 
in part. The full grammar-school schedule begins with the first 
grade in five schools or systems, with the second grade in four, the 
third grade in 1(5, the fourth grade in five, the fifth in five, and the 
sixth in four. Only six high schools (five in separate buildings) vary 
at all from the full grammar-school schedule, and they average 
twelve minutes less school and eight minutes less recess. 

Half-day schedules are not reported for grades beyond the fourth. 
In the third grade three morning sections average 185 minutes of 
school and twelve minutes of recess; four afternoon sections average 
170 and ten minutes respectively. In the fourth grade two morning 
sections average 157 minutes of school and twelve minutes of recess; 
one afternoon section has 120 and ten minutes, respectively. 

The distribution of the recess time has little uniformity. Nearly 
all of the half-day classes in the morning have one recess of ten or 
fifteen minutes, coming near the center of their schedule but often 
varying somewhat to coincide with the first recess of the full-session 
day. The afternoon sessions are shorter and may need less recess, 
but it is inadvisable to omit this period altogether, even when not 
included in the full schedule of the school. However, the complaint 
is often justified that marching in the halls and play on small school 
grounds disturb the other children at work. This is one .phase of 
a more general problem, that of having recess periods, like arithmetic 
periods, through the day, especially when the school has much-needed 
teaching of games, light exercises, etc. By arrangement of rooms 
and exits for specific classes or divisions, by tiptoe marching in halls, 
and by use of play space some distance from the school, this diffi- 
culty could be met. It is about the only way of getting full use of 
limited outdoor, or even indoor, playgrounds. 

The first recess in a full schedule comes from 10:15 to 11:10, gen- 
erally at 10:30, and lasts from ten to twenty minutes — ten in 25 
schools or systems, fifteen in eleven, and twenty in four. The length 
of this recess does not vary inversely as the variations in the sec- 
ond, or long, recess. The third recess comes from 1:55 to 2:40, the 
time varying in relation to the time of dismissal from 3:00 on, and 
lasts for ten minutes. The first recess is omitted in six high schools, 
and the third recess in 27 elementary and 32 high schools. 

Nearly all the schools have gross recesses, the two or three minutes 
required to get hats and wraps and to march out being taken from 
tlie recess time; but the minutes required to form in line, return to 



A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 7 

rooms, and settle down to work again are generally taken from the 
following class period. All recesses of less than fifteen minutes should 
be net, and the schedule should allow at least five minutes more for 
getting out and in. 

The second recess is the pivot on which the school day turns. The 
dispute as to the one or two-session day is primarily a matter of this 
recess. In Europe the period is generally 120 minutes or more and really ■ 
makes two-sessions, so the discussion of a change to "undivided in- 
struction" is important; but in America the period is generally 60 
minutes or less and is really a long recess in a one-session day. 

In the schools or systems here studied this recess begins from 11:43 
to 1:15, depending (a) on the time of opening school (8:45 to 9:00) 
and of dismissal (2:15 to 4:00), and (b) on the time for other recesses. 
The amount of the second recess varies from fifteen to 70 minutes, 
eight schools having 30 and nineteen having 60 minutes. There are 
30 schools or systems with 35 minutes or more, and fourteen with 30 
rninutes or less, some schools varying from others in the same system. 

Where should the line be drawn between a one and a two-session day? 
It would be arbitrary, tho sometimes convenient, to make 30 
minutes the point of demarcation. As will be shown later, the eat- 
ing of lunch at school or at home is almost universal at this period 
and cannot be made a distinguishing characteristic. Some city 
schools, especially high schools, shorten this period, primarily on 
account of little room for play. 

Altogether, it seems best to deal with the problem of this recess 
as a matter of minutes, rather than as a dividing line. If a large per- 
centage of children can and wish to go home, the time should be 
made sufficient for the journey and the home meal; if there is space 
for genuine play for most of the students, the time should be made 
sufficient for more than tidbit playing; if there is little other oppor- 
tunity during the day for social recreation, as in many rural schools, 
the time should be made sufficient for such an essential. In fact, the 
noon recess can be made the climax of educational opportunities. 

Definite relaxation periods between recitations are reported only 
from two primary schools, tho similar breaks in the routine are prob- 
ably customary in others. And the change of classes, and especially 
of rooms, furnishes a little relief for the older children. The Ger- 
man "pauses" of ten or fifteen minutes an hour are more like relax- 
ation periods during change of classes than what American recesses 
are or ought to be. In addition to these recesses two or more re- 
laxation periods of about five minutes each would well be worth 
the time both for the younger and the older children. These little 
periods could be differently used in the classrooms according to 
grade and be varied from day to day for the same class, with con- 
versation, singing, marching, games, stories, etc. 



8 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

Suggested Length of School Day. 

It is impossible to make suggestions that would suit all the schools 
here represented, with their different internal and external condi- 
tions. As mentioned before, the amount and distribution of the to- 
tal school time are influenced by many of these conditions; and, in 
turn, the amount and distribution of recess time are conditioned by 
the length of the school day. But the author is led by his knowl- 
edge of the general conditions in the schools here represented, which 
are probably similar to those in other states, to suggest a schedule 
subject to local modifications. A comparison with the data just given 
will show that there is nothing radical in this schedule. 

Starting with the first grade, the total school time should increase 
by more or less equal degrees until a school maximum is reached in 
the grammar grades, preferably the sixth. The prevalent custom of 
increasing unevenly up to the second, third, or fourth grade and then 
jumping to a maximum has nothing to commend it. The child makes 
no corresponding jump in physical or mental growth at this time; 
the school does not, or certainly should not, have such a sudden in- 
crease in instructional requirements; and there is no parallel change 
in the home and social life of the children. Gradual development of 
school child, of school requirements, of school time — mutually con- 
sistent with each other; this is the desideratum. 

The excuse from some rural and semi-rural schools, that the 
younger children must be kept in school until their older brothers 
and sisters can go home with them, has only limited application. It 
has been found in actual practice that most of the younger children 
get home without difficulty, if they are dismissed early, and that 
the few remaining at school (especially to wait for school wagons)^ 
can play quietly on the school grounds or, in bad weather, can read 
or amuse themselves quietly in some supervised room. Their teach- 
ers and their classrooms can generally be used for departmental in- 
struction of upper-grade divisions and thus relieve the congestion 
of work therein. 

If the school day lasts three hours in the first grade, with chil- 
dren varying around 6^^ years of age, and should increase one-half 
hour each year, it would reach five and one-half hours in the sixth 
grade, with children varying around 13 years. This increase should 
not be continued on thru the elementary grades and into the high 
school, because the strains of puberty and adolescence render the 
older students unable to bear increased strains of school work and 
confinement. And the older children can profitably spend more 
time out of school in preparation or in other educational interests. 
However, a shorter school day for the high school than for the gram- 
mar grades seems an extreme application of this principle; second- 
ary school boys and girls ought to get without strain as mych or 
more profit out of the maximum school time. Thruout the school, 



A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 9 

individual, cases of chronic or temporary inabilit}^ to stay in school 
without injury for the full time required can be met by special re- 
duction, tho such excuses may easily be abused. 

An increase of fifteen minutes each year, or 30 minutes every 
other year, from the fifth to a maximum of one hour in the eighth 
grade (the first year in Virginia high schools) could be added to 
the total school time to allow^ more preparation of lessons in school 
under supervision and thus decrease the time for home study. It 
is to be doubted whether the length of the school day should be 
thus extended beyond a total of six and one-half hours, even in the 
high school. Time must be left for the exercise, recreation, home 
associations, social relations, and individual pursuits of the out-of- 
school life. 

This paper does not recommend an all-day school, extending 
until the late afternoon and including many of these out-of-school 
activities. Altho the schools in some industrial centers and in the 
comparatively disadvantaged parts of great cities may have to sup- 
ply to children a home and social life they could not otherwise get, 
there is at present no evidence that an approach to a modified Spar- 
tan barrack system for children is needed in most American urban 
and rural communities to replace and reduce, rather than increase, 
home responsibilities in the afternoon. 

Suggested Schedule of Recesses. 

On the basis of the total school time here mentioned, theoretical 
calculation of the total recess time could be made. Starting with 
twenty minutes for the first grade, the recess time could be increased 
by ten minutes for every half hour of total school time. This would 
give a maximum of 70 mmutes, or 21 per cent, of the five and one- 
half hours in the sixth and higher grades, one minute of recess be- 
ing given for every 3.7 minutes of school work. For every fifteen 
minutes of study added there could be five minutes more of recess, 
making a maximum of 90 minutes, or 23 per cent, for six and one- 
half hours and of one minute of recess for every 3.3 minutes of 
school work. Thruout this schedule the proportion of time devoted 
to recess becomes larger as the total school time increases. But 
this theoretical calculation partially fails before the problem of dis- 
tribution of the recess time in the earlier grades. The increases per 
grade up thru the sixth would make combined recesses almost im- 
possible and would cause confusion in most schools thru the exit 
and re-entrance of individual classes thruout the day. However, 
this difficulty would not apply to the sixth and higher grades with a 
short recess from 10:40-11:00 and a long recess from 12:30-1:20. 
Such a schedule would give 1-/3 hours of school work from the open- 
ing of school at 9:00 until the first recess, then 114 hours until the 
second recess, and then 1 1/6 hours until dismissed at 2:30 — the in- 



10 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

tervals of work decreasing bj' ten and twenty minutes, respectively, 
as the school day advances. Of course, an earlier opening of school 
would not afifect the proportions of this schedule. A compromise 
for the sake of easy organization could be made in case of the earlier 
grades by letting the entire school have recess from 10:40-11:00, by 
dismissing the tliird grade along with the second at 12:30, and by 
giving the fourth and fifth grades the recess from 12:30-1:;20 and 
dismissing both at 2:00. With this schedule all recesses would be at 
the same time and no class would be kept at work when the play of 
others might cause distraction. If this distraction is not a local 
problem, the third grade could be held until 1:00 (or 12:45 on ac- 
count of insufficient previous recess); the fourth grade could be 
brought in from the second recess at 1:00 and dismissed at 1:30; 
and the fifth grade could be brought in even at 1:10 and dismissed 
at 2:00. In case of increased length of school day thru additional 
study time from the fifth grade up, the second recess could well be 
given from 12:00 to 12:50 {with rearrangements for lower grades) 
and a third recess added from 2:10 to 2:25 for the sixth and later 
grades. The extra 15 minutes of recess would serve as a compro- 
mise for the 10-20 minutes suggested. 

If a large percentage of the children go home at the second recess 
for luncheon or dinner, fifteen, or preferably 30, minutes should be 
added to the suggested allowance of 50 minutes. The additional time 
should be added to the total school day, vvitliout clianging the above- 
mentioned intervals of school work, and ])ostpone to that extent 
the dismissal of the grades concerned. Sucli an extension could be 
made temporarily or permanently for purposes of extra play or so- 
cial recreation. 

A great difficulty in a'l schedules is tlie length of recitation pe- 
riods, especially in the high schools with their unit credits for pe- 
riods of 40 minutes. It would be better to work out first a satis- 
factory schedule for the school work as a whole and for the re- 
cesses, and then try to adapt the periods to this schedule, rather 
than c'icc 2'crsa as is usually done. These i)criods ought not to be 
the same for each grade or for some of the subjects in the same 
grade; and the fetish of uniform length for high-school periods will 
be gradually discarded thru various combinations of recitation and 
study time. Furthermore, there is little valid proof in favor of spe- 
cific subjects at specific times of the day or in a hard and fast se- 
quence. It does seem probable that some such schedule as is here 
suggested could be used in many schools without much modifica- 
tion. But the schedule is given primarily as a basis for suggestions 
from others. 

Two Functions of Recesses. 

Before discussing the management of recesses, it is well to men- 
tion tlioir two main functions. On tlic basis of tests before and 



A STUDY Oi' SCHOOL RECESSES 11 

after recess, especially the noon intermission, several German and 
American students have drawn positive conclusions as to the recu- 
perative value of such pauses; but the technique of some of these 
researches is open to criticism. There is an almost universal belief 
that recesses relieve the strain of school work, and this belief seems 
justified in practice tho with little scientific proof. The relief prob- 
ably comes more thru a change from the immobility of seat-work, 
the repression of discipline, and the boredom of instruction than 
thru a reduction of actual fatigue; and the recuperation is to be 
sought more in better will to work and better discipline than in the 
quality or quantity of test results. However, the point of the pres- 
ent study is that the negative tho highly important function of re- 
lief is secondary to the positive function of exercise, recreation, and 
association. Recesses are not merely essential in the daily schedule; 
they are essential in education. And the real worth of these periods 
can never be realized thru emphasis upon one of their functions 
alone. 

Keeping-in. 

The bad practice of keeping-in at one or more recesses exists in 
sixteen schools, while 25 schools prohibit or greatly discourage the 
practice. There are some partially extenuating conditions, as de- 
tention for only a small part of the recess, detention of only those 
who must leave in wagons or for work immediately after school, 
detention of only those who are disorderly in marching or in play, 
letting the kept-ins go out for a little while after recess, etc. 

However, if the recess is a hygienic and social need, no punish- 
ment should deprive the child of his right, not merely privilege, to 
get the full value of it; if the recess is not such a need, it should not 
be a part of the daily program. One deprivation may not injure a 
child, but the practice tends to grow into a habit and is nearly al- 
ways open to abuse. Furthermore, it is a poor method of discipline, 
it interferes with flushing the rooms by opening the windows (a 
hygienic need in most schools), and it generally keeps in a teacher 
when she ought to be outdoors or, at least, free from responsibility. 
The author has had confessions from a large number of teachers in 
his summer-school classes that keeping-in does not generally check 
disorder or increase diligence. Superintendents and principals often 
complain that some of their teachers hinder them from prohibiting 
the practice; but this excuse is hardly valid, as the prohibition should 
be made and the local faculty then be expected to find other forms 
of punishment, if really necessary. That other forms have been 
found, successful is daily proved in many schools. 

When keeping-in at recess is abolished, it is very seldom rein- 
stated; in fact, the abolition of keeping-in after school is the natural 
next step in reform. This does not apply, of course, to an extra 
study period for students that need some extra instruction in a 



12 A STUnv OF SCHOOI. RECESSKS 

given subject. Most of the schools included in tlie present report 
allow keeping-in after school, tho a few may use this time only for 
individual instruction and not for punishment. Many set maximum 
time limits, generally 30 minutes. Detention of students for disorder 
or neglect seems necessary to the peace and sanity of mind of some 
teachers, and few schools have the courage to deprive the faculty 
entirely of this nervous outlet. In any case, the kept-in child should 
be given a short recess at the time of dismissal, and then be called 
in for some truly educative work or personal conference, not for 
sullen study at, rather than of, some penal task. All children and 
teachers must be out of the school before a stated time when the 
janitor takes charge to clean up for the day. 

Staying-in. 

Should students be allowed to stay in at recess of their own ac- 
cord during fair weather? Xot any more than they should be al- 
lowed to stay away from a recitation. If they are too unwell to at- 
tend the recitation, they ought not to be made to do so; if they are 
too unwell to attend the recess, they ought not to be made to do so. 
As has been suggested, the recess belongs to the child as a right, 
not merely as a privilege; but it also belongs to him as a duty, just 
as much as his geography or his geometry. It is an obligatory pe- 
riod during the school day. Studying at recess ought to be as rep- 
rehensible in discipline as playing in a study period; in fact, its 
consequence may be more serious, especially when indulged in by 
just those overstudious boys and girls that need the recess the most. 
Loafing or gossiping in classroom and hall do give some relaxation 
and recreation, but they are feeble substitutes for outdoor move- 
ment and play. Even those students not vigorous enough, tempo- 
rarily or chronically, to take part in games are far better strolling, 
or even standing, in the open air. Small school grounds do not al- 
low much play, but they allow at least some exercise and fun and 
noise — three essentials of growth. Outdoor recesses change both 
physical and mental attitudes and tend to neutralize the effect of 
less natural attitudes in schools. (The rainy-day schedule will be 
discussed later.) 

About half of the schools or systems here studied prohibit stay- 
ing-in without special permission, except in play or toilet rooms. 
Others permit students to stay in or return to their own classrooms, 
others permit use of hall or halls, and a few permit free use of 
the building as a whole. The requirement of outdoor recesses for 
all students, except an excused few who can be congregated in one 
room, is grcatlv to be desired. 

Marching, 

Marching in and out at recess is not a matter of taste, not even 



13 

A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 



•Of convenience, but a matter of order, of co-operat.on. of emphases 
Ion Jroup a her than incUvidual action. Its purpose is pnmarxly 
W In large schools children may be marched out to Prevent 
inter erence and loss of time, but such reasons are --f"-* m 
sma schools with adequate exits. Children in school should be- 
com tizen of a society and merge their "^d^-^-^^^-^. ^ /^^ J. 
Tecessarv into the general good. However, as their individual tend 
cncies must be considered by teachers in instruction and, to a less 
degree discipline, children often fail to see the greater signih^ 

cance of the group life as a whole and their proper subordination to 
■t The excessive individualism in American homes, often leadmg 
o ov r-indu Igerce and self-importance, may be encouraged by m- 
Svidualistic school methods, however admirable in themselves and 
twevetev table to some extent in all good teaching. Along with 
tl^Te me hods could well go exercises that demonstrate the expre - 
sin of the individual thru and for the group, the — ^f ili y of be 
ing out of place and out of step, the impertinence o^ -^-^ ^^U^^ 
the inefficiency of confusion, and the ughness of disorder. All these 
points mv be%nd sometimes are, emphasized in the instruction and 
Tscip ine of th; school, but children generally are not -^^ure enough to 
s e and especially not mature enough to appreciate them while the in- 
carnation of these ideals in bodily -cement impresses itsel thru 
eye and ear and especially thru the kmaesthetic sense, /h author 
/as no intention of suggesting a scheme of symbolism ^^^ this ^sm 
has alreadv done much harm in education; he is simply stating the 
impresses gained over and over again, not only from the demon- 
T:Z of social order and co-operation by children --hingJ_o 
gether but also from the recognition and enjoyment ^^ this socia 
■order and co-operation by the children themselves^ They do not 
Understand its full social significance but they see the value o scU- 
control and subordination to thfe group purpose. They uncon 
sciously develop thru it an esprit de corps of love and pride m their 

"Furthermore, the hygienic value of such marching will be readily 
granted, imbued as it is with genuine pleasure. It builds up the body 
and lifts up the spirit. A child that does not like to -rch w th 
his school should be sent to a doctor; there s something out of gear 

in his bodv or mind. , . , 

Recesses ofier the most frequent opportunities for this group dem- 
on^tratJL thru marching. Each child in his place in the c ass Une 
.ach class in its place in the school hne and all m unison represen 
ing the school. Recreation and disciphne fused mto one^ On fai 
days the marching could well be continued out on the school 
grounds and be elaborated into attractive figures, becommg a recre- 
ative drill. Classes or divisions could compete with each other 
l?h banners to be carried by the winners. Even on city sidewalks 
a little diversion of this kind would not be unwelcome. 



14 A STUDY OK SCHOOL RECESSES 

In 34 of the schools or systems here studied the children march 
out and in at recess, and in two they march in but not out; while 
in eighteen some form of music — piano, phonograph, or drum — is 
used. In some of the large high schools there is no marching at 
all, and apparently no need of it for purposes of control; but prob- 
ably the students would enjoy, take pride in, and greatly benefit by 
this social exercise if well done. 

The trouble with niost school marching is that it is not taken se- 
riously by anybody. It is just a way of getting in and out. In some 
of these schools the marching would inspire the most phlegmatic, 
but in other schools there are various degrees of carelessness. No 
snap and fun and pride can develop out of slovenly marching. If 
this school service is worth doing at all, it is worth doing precisely. 
Within suitable limits for the age of the children in each grade and 
their power of exact muscular control without strain, the stricter 
the requirements, the better the results. Erect carriage, proper 
place, even distance between individuals, hands by side, no talking, 
exactness in time, orderly turning, etc. — these and other character- 
istics add dignity, power, beauty, and enjoyment to marching and 
should be insisted upon by ofificial authority and the public senti- 
ment of the school. 

Should boys and girls march separately? This depends upon cir- 
cumstances. Segregation of the sexes tends tc increase, rather than 
decrease, sex consciousness and should not be required except when 
necessary. If there are separate playgrounds for boys and for girls, 
it is more convenient to march the boys out to their playground 
and the girls to theirs; yet even then the separation could generally 
be made out of doors and not interfere with the combined marching. 
However, there is a possible disadvantage in having the grammar 
and high-school boys use the stairways at the same time as the 
girls. When the entire class does march together in double file, the 
boys had better march with boys and the girls with girls, probably 
a pair of boys alternating with a pair of girls. This arrangement 
generally seems to give better order, time, and appearance, tho it 
may be largely a matter of training. 

Space, Equipment and Games. 

These necessities of recess have been so well discussed in the lit- 
erature on play that it would be superfluous to take up much space 
in repeating the well-recognized principles of these discussions. 
The national movement for play has probably given proportionately 
too little attention to the school and recess side of the question, a 
side that might appeal to most communities first and thereby open 
the way for wider development. Just a few words are here needed 
about the meager but encouraging beginning in the schools here 
represented. The average playground space per school in 26 schools 



A STUDY OF SCHOOIv RECESSES 15, 

or systems reporting such acreage" is about three acres; but these 
figures do not include the larger city schools, which generally have 
very little space for recess. The small city, town, and consolidated 
rural schools are the best favored in this regard. A great deal more 
interest should be shown in using vacant lots near the school, even 
if a small rent be required; and it is surprising that so few schools 
avail themselves of such advantages. Furthermore, not half a dozen 
schools report much playground apparatus, exclusive of simple 
equipment for basketball — the most popular game for the older 
children. Baseball is a general favorite with the boys, of course, 
but is played informally in most schools. Fortunately, football is 
not generally encouraged, and volley ball and soccer are becoming 
better known. Tennis courts are mutiplying rapidly but cannot 
■often be used at recess, as too much space is required in proportion 
to the number of players. Games for little children are taught by 
teachers in a few of these schools, and some high-school teams are 
■coached after school hours. 

One of the greatest needs in our curricula is some requirement 
that in each grade certain games at least be taught and frequently 
played. An education without play is anemic, and adherence to the 
rules of games is as necessary as adherence to the rules of any ef- 
fort for efficient activity. Slipshodness and deceit are Immoral in 
play as in other enterprises. So games must be taught outdoors 
and in; and if the playground space is small, it should be constantly 
used during the day in combination with indoor instruction. And 
all the children must play, not a few while the others look on. 

Separate Playgrounds. 

Should there be separate playgrounds for boys and for girls? 
Only insofar as necessary. The children of the first and second 
grades ought to play together in games taught by teachers. Even in 
some schools where older children are separated, these little ones have 
their games in common. When boys from the third grade up show 
^any tendency toward rudeness to girls, or take- possession of their 
space and apparatus, or play with them too roughly, then separation of 
the sexes may become necessary. The possibilities of trouble are 
■greatest in the grammar grades and tend to die out, or become partic-^ 
ularized to a very few students, in the best high schools. Of course, boys 
and girls will and should have their own games under any circumstances 
and will tend to segregate naturally. Some principals of the thirteen 
schools, generally small, reporting no separate playgrounds, say that 
the matter takes care of itself in this way, and some even encour- 
age the boys and girls to play together. But separate playgrounds 
are reported, by 25 schools or systems and are generally considered 
essential, especially in city schools. The entrances to toilets may 
be so placed that some separation of the sexes near them is obligatory. 



16 A STUDY OF SCHOOr. RECESSES 

However, boys and girls co-operate in all forms of school Avork, 
so wh}^ fear, discourage, forbid co-operation in the freer and more 
spirited life at recess? Does the recess naturally tend to sex con- 
sciousness and even to disorder? Boys and girls tend to become 
what we iniiuite tlicni to be; and, by advertising and incalculating 
our fear of social intercourse between them in schools, we make 
them conscious of and sometimes interested in possible trouble. 
Better expect no trouble, erect no barriers, put up no sign-posts; 
and then believe in, watch for, insist upon, stimulate to, and gen- 
erate pride in the courtesy "that good society expects between boys 
and girls. Of course there are backgrounds of bad breeding, as welf 
as good, in most schools, but the esprit dc corps of conscientiously 
and wisely administered public or private schools tends to lift up 
rather than drag down, to seek standards above rather than at the 
le\el of the majority. A supervised recess shorld offer little cliancc 
for trouble, and the spirit of the school should tolerate no breach 
of decorum. 

Of course, if the co-operative recess for all cannot be even tried 
in a given scliool, the matter is settled so far as that school is con- 
cerned. But where such a recess can be given a trial, it deserves 
the trial; then, if with the best available intentions and wisdom the 
plan fails, the separation of the sexes can easily be renewed. 

Separate playgrounds for age groups are desirable only if neces- 
sary to keep the children from crowding each other out of their 
rightful space. This encroachment may easily happen to gain- 
room for the games of the older children, especially for high-school 
athletics, which are sometimes unjustly favored in space, equipment, 
and prestige. The need will generally be met by informal divisions 
for the older boys, the older girls, the younger boys, and the younger 
girls. As most boys take more exercise after school than girls do, 
the space should be proportionately equal or even larger for the 
girls, who should be induced, probably required, to make full use of 
it. The children not participating in the games with their own 
group should be allowed to move about freely from one division tO' 
another, so long as they did not interfere. Of course, disciplinary^ 
trouble over, any of these divisions would force stricter boundary 
lines and rules. 

The occasionally expressed fear that some older children, espe- 
cially boys, will set bad examples to the younger is a confession of 
weakness in the school management, as the faculty is there pri- 
marily to inculcate and enforce responsibility for better individual 
and social life. If our schools cannot expect children to associate 
without injury, then our society is in a bad way. As previously em- 
phasized, there is little reason in most schools to fear that the very 
large majority of the children will not keep up to a high standard 
of decorum at school. The small number of older and younger chil- 



A STUDY OP SCHOOL RECESSES 17 

dren needing attention ought to be watched and trained to conform- 
ity; if this is impossible, they ought to be eliminated. The public 
school is not a reformatoi-y; and the manners and morals of the nor- 
mal child must be protected from injury, especially thru public in- 
stitutions. If the school authorities ever fear democratic recesses 
of different age and sex groups, they had better omit some textbook 
work and concentrate on solving recess problems rather than dodg- 
ing them. 

Supervision, 

The supervision of recesses is not a separate problem but an in- 
tegral expression of the spirit of the general administration. The 
best way to find out what a school really is at heart is to study the 
"behavior of children at recess, especially if they are allowed to be 
spontaneous. To reach an acceptable degree of order and consid- 
eration, every effort should be made through suggestion, control, 
and punishment, if necessary; but children should not be interfered 
with, certainly not policed, insofar as they reach by themselves a 
creditable standard of happy co-operation. They must grow up to 
self-control, not teacher-control; and too many pedagogical strings 
at school are as bad as too many apron strings at home. 

Yet most children need some adult leadership at recess. They 
often stand around in a helpless inactivity that tempts an observer 
to use a prodding-rod; or they engage in haphazard amusements as 
monotonous and meaningless as "chop-sticks" on a piano. They are 
like people who cannot speed their wealth, especially in ways that 
are beneficial to themselves and others. By suggestion and example 
teachers can lead these children to put more fun into and get more 
out of recess, to have more organization and variety in their games, 
and to bring about a wider and heartier association with others. A 
kill-joy teacher should be ruled off the grounds, and repressive rules 
avoided. A recess without a good time is not a recess; it is only a 
breathing-spell. And. a recess without laughter and noise is unnat- 
ural. But with busy, happy children disciplinary problems tend to 
vanish and be forgotten. Public opinion will enforce its own social 
requirements, and the rules of recess will attain ethical sanction. 

And what if children do sometimes become excited at recess and 
get happily tired? The classes immediately following may suffer 
somewhat, and, the relief function of recess may be lessened, at least 
on the physical side. But children go to school more to live and 
learn than to learn and live; and they generally live more at recess 
than in the classroom, and sometimes learn more too. 

The custom of assigning the supervision of recesses to most of the 
teachers in turn — alternately by day or week or month — is uncertain 
and unwise. The capabilities and methods of teachers in meeting" 
this responsibility will vary so much that no consistent development 
of leadership will be possible. Police duties can be bandied about 



18 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

from person to person, but leadership never. Better select the best 
qualified and expect constant service from them, with partial com- 
pensation in greater prestige and salary and in relaxation periods at 
other times in the day. Further compensation will come to the su- 
pervisors in the service itself. 

About three-fourths of the schools here represented report regular^ 
though often informal, supervision at recess. Three have none at 
all, and two none in the high school. This supervision is mainly done 
by teachers on duty but sometimes by the principal alone. The of- 
ficials seem pleased with their present arrangements and report very 
little disciplinary trouble at recess. But the leadership side of the 
supervision has rarely been developed, and then mostly with the 
little children or in connection with high-school athletics. 

Only gifted supervisors have the desired, combination of leadership 
and of police control, the latter being latent because unnecessary. 
They need a rainbow of good qualities. They should let the chil- 
dren run their own recesses but should infuse the right spirit into 
the running; should break up unsocial cliques and check disagreeable 
individuals; should know and direct the standard games; and should 
make all anxious to do their part. Above all. the reticent or offish 
or afflicted children should be brought forward to a recognized place 
in the group life. Social maladjustments in childhood cause much 
unhappiness and promise mere in the future. And recesses ofifer ta 
the supervisors fine opportunity for correcting some of these mal- 
adjustments by reproving the unjust, restraining the bully, shaming 
the profane, and boycotting the obscene; by encouraging the timid^ 
teaching the backward, befriending the lonely, and introducing the 
stranger. Truly this is no trivial responsibility, no mean role for a 
supervisor. A recess is not an ciitr' acfc; it might even be the climax 
of the play. 

Eating at Recess. 

The meal times of school children will be studied later on in this 
series, but the present report includes some data on the school side 
of this question. In about one-half of the schools a large propor- 
tion, in one-third a small proportion, and in one-sixth none of the 
children go home for dinner or luncheon. Although family dinners 
are seldom suited to children near the middle of the school day and 
although luncheons or even lunches at school are better, it is difficult 
to oppose home wishes in this matter at the second recess. The 
average amount of time allowed for the second recess is little influ- 
enced by the number of children going home, except, negatively, in the 
large city schools with short recesses. About six of these schools serve 
luncheon. Children staying at school are generally allowed to take 
their lunch outdoors, where they eat and play at the same time and 
scatter around their paper and "left-overs," unless severe rules or 
an unusual esprit dc covins forbid. Only two or three schools keep 



A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 19 

children in the classrooms until lunch is hastily eaten. Which is the 
better way of dealing with this problem it is difficult to decide; prob- 
ably the outdoor plan is generally more satisfactory, if luncheon 
cannot be served. 

The prevailing custom, or neglect, of allowing children to eat lunch 
at two or even three recesses should be condemned. There is no 
hygienic good in giving the digestive system this extra work to 
do, especially when the school is demanding mental alertness in reci- 
tation and study. Frequent nibbling at food is a bad. habit, due to 
home indulgence and to individual lack of self-control. Eating at 
the first recess should be prohibited entirely, and children going 
home at the second recess should not be allowed to bring any lunch 
at all. If some children have had breakfast so soon that they be- 
come hungry early in the school day, then the first recess, instead 
of the second, should be their one and only time for lunch. All this 
discussion is based upon the expectation of school dismissal before 
or at 3:30, and upon the belief that children should have something 
to eat on their return home, as the third of the four light meals due 
them during the 24 hours. On account of this third meal, the second 
at home or school ought not to be heavy or produce that mental 
heaviness so noticeable after the second recess in many schools. 

Drinking of Water. 

The drinking of water during the school day should be confined 
to recesses. With opportunity at two or more such periods and be- 
fore and after school, a child can get all the water he needs, if only 
he thinks about getting it; and he should be made to think. In fact, 
a neglect in meeting any real need of this kind and a nervous desire 
to break the monotomy of school work by m.oving about in or out 
of the room are the actual causes of most requests to get a drink of 
water. A first bell could be rung five minutes before the end of re- 
cess as a warning to the thirsty and thoughtless to prepare for a 
dry session; and a little parching later on would be a gentle reminder 
to those that heeded, not. One regulation or very similar regulations 
for going out either to get a drink of water or to use the toilet, as 
in most of the schools here represented, imply failure to distinguish 
between different needs. 

Use of Toilets. 

In connection with the general supervision of the school there is 
another problem that centers in the recesses but is not confined to 
them. This is the use of toilets during school hours. Though neg- 
lected in the literature and class instruction on educational questions, 
this daily problem is perplexing in many schools, and is dealt with 
in a multitude of ways. 

Every child, if possible, should attend to hygienic needs before 



20 A "STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

coming to school in the morning. It is mistaken prudery not to in- 
sist upon this to the children and to their parents. As constipation is 
becoming one of the most widespread evils of cur civilization, both 
home and school must combine to prevent it in the children. Talks 
to the boys by a man and to the girls by a w^oman have proved very 
helpful in some schools; and especially ought not the subject to be 
dodged in parents' meetings. 

If a child still comes to school without having attended to such 
matters, he should feel free to "go out" of study or recitation class 
without embarrassment or punishment. Better sacrifice time and 
attention to school work than undermine health. But other hygienic 
needs can generally be met by recesses that are less than two hours 
from each other or from the opening and dismissal of school; and 
self-control in regard to these needs should be encouraged. In all 
cases the child must tell some designated authority at some appointed 
time the hygienic reason for his going out. If there is much repe- 
tition in the case of any child, the parents or even the family doctor 
must be consulted. It is better to allow going out without request 
but with explanation later on than to restrain individuals by requir- 
ing such interruptions and publicity. Sufficient requirements are those 
that a slip with name be put on the teacher's desk as the child goes 
out quietly, that a maximum time be not exceeded, and that ex- 
planation and estimate of time be reported to some advisor. In case 
of little children requests may sometimes be needed, but with older 
children, especially with girls, they do more harm than good. Hy- 
gienic counsel, differentiation of needs, general regulations, individual 
freedom, and proper explanation— these will meet nearly every case 
in both an orderly and a hygienic way. 

The use of toilets on request during school hours is allowed in 
most of the schools here represented, the request being omitted in 
five high schools. There are a few reports of keeping-in or demerit, 
either for going out at all, for overtime, for more than one in a 
class out at the same time, or for going out soon after recess. Re- 
cords are seldoin kept, but sometimes names are put either on the 
blackboard, on the teacher's tablet, or on individual slips. There is 
very little report of dissatisfaction with present plans. 

Rainy-Day Schedules. 

Of 24 of the schools here represented eleven do and thirteen do 
not make some change in their schedule on account of bad weather: 
and naturally the representation of town and rural schools is greater 
in the first group and of city schools in the second. The change is 
generally a shortening of the second recess, or even a combination 
of two recesses into a short one, and a proportionately early dis- 
missal of school. With children moving about the building and 



A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 21 

eating their lunch, discipline is more difficult, even when all the 
teachers are on duty. The children who generally go home for a meal 
either anticipate a rainy-day schedule and bring lunch with them, or 
they share the lunch of friends, or they wait until their return home. 
A change of schedule after the school day has begun sometimes in- 
conveniences these children and especially those parents that come 
or send for students. Some principals are strongly opposed to rainy- 
day schedules and seem to be supported by the homes in this op- 
position. 

The problem is primarily one of local conditions and sentiment, 
but the burden of proof in every case should rest upon those that 
introduce changes for inclement weather. Every effort should be 
made to get the best into and out of the regular schedule before 
cutting down the recess time. This cutting down really amounts to 
cutting out the recesses, which are too valuable to be omitted thought- 
lessly. Why not omit a singing lesson every time a few children have 
the sniffles, or a history lesson every time the teacher is not pre- 
pared? 

Bad weather is more often a state of mind than a meteorological 
fact. It is fear of the weather bogey. And children soon learn from 
parents and teachers this kind of phobia; they must not get wet, they 
must avoid the mud, they must not get cold, they must keep out of 
the wind. Most of this teaching weakens body and character. A 
child that is scared of a raindrop oifght to be made ashamed of him- 
self; and so ought a child that runs for cover as soon as he sees 
a cloud in the sky or shrinks from mud on his garments as from a 
spot upon his soul. Children ought to be dressed properly for cold 
or rain or mud and then be turned out with little regard, for weather, 
rain coats and rubber caps and overshoes being as necessary equip- 
ment for school children as pads and pencils. Learning to meet 
changes in weather without timidity or whimpering is no small part 
of education both for boys and girls. Of course, these arguments 
may not be valid for invalids, for whom exceptions must be made; 
but schools are not sanitaria. 

Schools in city, town, and country ought to give rainy-day recesses 
a fair trial, demanding some ingenuity on the part of teachers and 
children in arranging for outdoor activities in rough weather, with 
due regard for character and size of playgrounds. Everyone should 
take pride in making such recesses healthful and pleasant. Over- 
shoes can save many schools from an overdose of mud; but there is 
no reason to revolt against a little mud brought in on shoes or clothes 
or hands, for it is not deadly and will be cleaned away sooner or 
later. When the weather is really too severe for outdoor activities, 
then indoor recesses should be planned with great care. A search- 
ing test of school management is the success of these indoor exer- 
cises and recreations. Are they orderly, livelj*. and enjoyable? And 



22 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 

there is sonictinics suspicion that rainy-day schedules are due to 
poverty in nianagment, the line of least resistance being to avoid 
rather than master difficulties. 

Conclusion. 

Most of the suggestions made in this report arc tentative and de- 
pendent on local conditions; they are stated in the hope of promot- 
ing discussion. But there is often emphasized in the preceding pages 
a conviction not at all tentative: that recesses can have inestimable 
values beyond those generally granted in theory or realized in prac- 
tice. The dictionary definition of recess as "cessation from employ- 
ment" is still accepted and applied in many schools thruout the 
nation. In these schools children are let out for an interim, with 
little sense of responsibility in the heads and hearts of the faculty 
for what the children do or say or think, so long as they do not run 
against the barriers of discipline. The main purpose of the present 
paper is to substitute for this negative attitude a positive one of help- 
ing children to gain more health and happiness, initative and per- 
sistence, courtesy and consideration, fellowship and service thruout 
the recesses. For this high purpose these periods deserve space 
and time and equipment and, above all, special leadership, just as 
the recitation and study periods do. And probably the recesses will 
pay the highest interest on such an investment of public funds and 
individual devotion. 



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